ADHD and the criminal justice system: a small observation while reading .

While exploring publications from the Australian Institute of Criminology, I became curious about a simple question: How often does ADHD appear in Australian criminology research?

ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental conditions in adults. Yet when looking at criminology literature, the topic appears surprisingly rarely.

Searching the Australian Institute of Criminology publication database for “ADHD” returns only three publications, all from the Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series: 2003, 2009 and 2012. Of course, this does not necessarily mean that ADHD is absent from Australian criminology research more broadly. Relevant work may also appear in medical, psychological, or justice health literature rather than in criminology-focused reports.

The most direct discussion appears in the 2012 report Mental disorder prevalence at the gateway to the criminal justice system. In that study, 11% of men and 7% of women in the detainee sample reported an ADHD diagnosis, compared with an estimated 3% prevalence in the general adult population at the time. Since the report was published in 2012, diagnostic awareness and prevalence estimates have evolved, and the numbers today may differ.

These findings suggested that ADHD may be over-represented among individuals entering the criminal justice system. Importantly, this does not imply causation. ADHD does not “cause” criminal behaviour. However, neurodevelopmental traits associated with ADHD — such as impulsivity, difficulties with sustained attention, and challenges with executive functioning — may interact with environmental, social, and psychological factors in complex ways.

Looking at the current research priorities of the Australian Institute of Criminology (2025–26), the focus is understandably on major policy areas such as organised and transnational crime, cybercrime, violent extremism, family and domestic violence, human trafficking, online exploitation of children and Indigenous over-representation in the justice system. These are critical issues that require urgent attention. Yet within this landscape, neurodevelopmental conditions rarely appear as a dedicated area of criminological inquiry.

At the same time, international research increasingly suggests that ADHD may be significantly over-represented in justice-involved populations. For example, a widely cited systematic review and meta-analysis of 42 international studies estimated that approximately 26% of adults in prison and around 30% of youth offenders meet criteria for ADHD — representing roughly a five- to ten-fold increase compared with general population estimates. Other research discussing ADHD and justice policy has similarly highlighted that ADHD appears substantially more common in both juvenile detention and adult prison populations than in the general community.

Advocacy and policy discussions have also emphasised that more than one in four adult prisoners may meet criteria for ADHD, suggesting that the condition may represent a significant but often under-recognised public health issue within correctional systems.

Despite this growing international literature, the Australian evidence base remains relatively limited and dated. This raises an interesting question: Are neurodevelopmental conditions under-examined in criminology research?

Understanding the role of cognitive and neurodevelopmental factors does not replace social or policy explanations of crime. Instead, it may offer an additional layer of insight — one that connects neuroscience, mental health, and justice policy. For researchers, clinicians, and policymakers, this intersection may represent an important area for future work. Because sometimes the most interesting research questions begin with something simple: Why are we not studying this more often?

P.S. This reflection comes from reading publicly available reports rather than conducting research in this specific field. If colleagues working directly in criminology or justice research are aware of more recent Australian data or additional perspectives, I would genuinely welcome learning more.

References

Young, S., Moss, D., Sedgwick, O., Fridman, M., & Hodgkins, P. (2015). A meta-analysis of the prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in incarcerated populations. Psychological Medicine.

Baggio, S., et al. (2018). Prevalence of ADHD among people living in detention: systematic review and meta-analysis.

Australian evidence-based clinical practice guideline for ADHD: ADHD in the correctional system.

Australian Institute of Criminology (2012). Mental disorder prevalence at the gateway to the criminal justice system.